Criminal defendants can pose a lot of challenges for their lawyers. Primary among the problems, of course, are the brutal facts of the crimes. In addition, our clients tend to go to great lengths to "aid" the police in solving the crimes through confessions, statements to "snitches" and other such actions.

Beyond these crime-related challenges, criminal defendants commonly engage in other behaviors which sometimes seem designed to terminally stress the patience of the assigned attorney.

These problematic behaviors can manifest them-selves in a number of ways familiar to defense team members. One example is those occasions when you visit the client in his jail or prison setting, and he refuses to come out for the visit, blowing several hours of time that could have been spent constructively working on his case. Also, there are those times when the client does come out but rather than giving you specific answers to the critical questions you arrived with, he stands up, starts pacing back and forth, and rants and raves about some totally irrelevant gibberish. You are then forced to leave after a couple of hours feeling like nothing was accomplished.

Another example comes in the form of a motion to remove counsel, a complaint to the judge about "what a terrible lawyer you are," how you have "refused to listen to him" and "called him vile names," all as a "part of a conspiracy to do him in." You, then, are forced to walk that delicate line between acceding to such unfounded charges or further damaging a delicate relationship. A final example is that point in discussing the case when a client laughs as he talks about what happened to the victim.

In fact, during each of these typical scenarios, plus the myriad of similar encounters, the client is giving valuable information about significant mental impairment. These seemingly irrelevant or annoying interactions are often more meaningful in fully preparing a case than those times when a client is able to sit quietly and appropriately describe his actions the night of the crime. Most clients who commit violent

felonies, particularly capital crimes, suffer serious mental problems. These affect a wide range of legal issues, including mens rea (for the instant crime as well as priors), voluntariness of statements to police or other state officers, waivers, competency to stand trial, ability to testify meaningfully and accurately, and other competencies, as well as mitigation.

Preparation for the mental health evaluation of a criminal defendant requires not only full documentation of the family medical and psychiatric history,¹ but also careful observation over time of the client himself. Since we cannot afford to hire mental health experts to spend the time necessary to get a thorough picture of the client's behavior in a variety of settings across a wide expanse of time, the task must fall to those who have continued access to observations - the defense attorneys, mitigation specialists and investigators.

This paper is an attempt to outline for the defense team the types of behaviors identified by mental health professionals as significant signs of psychiatric problems, so that critical observational skills can be learned. Most of the behaviors discussed are general signals of mental disorder rather than definitive symptoms of one particular psychiatric illness.² These signs, if properly noted by the legal team and passed on to the mental health expert, will help guide the expert to make a more accurate evaluation.

To understand the significance of these observations, it seems helpful to use the analogy of a personal visit to a physician. When you have a medical complaint, you do not go to a doctor chosen randomly, walk in and simply say, "Tell me what is wrong, doc." You try to note the symptoms methodically over some period of time (e.g., dizziness on standing, "heart burn" a couple of hours after eating, numbness down left arm for a couple of weeks). For patients who are too young or too ill, a caretaker must do such observation. These monitored symptoms are then submitted to the doctor, who carefully analyzes them in the context of a full family medical history. With this expansive process, augmented by necessary laboratory testing, an accurate diagnosis and treatment plan can more likely be achieved.

In the criminal justice arena, we must do no less in our preparation for a mental health evaluation of our clients. Also, because the clients' impairments preclude accurate self-monitoring, the defense team must act as the observational caretakers for the mental status symptoms of the client. These noted signs and symptoms will lend invaluable guidance to the doctor later asked to do the mental health evaluation.

There are some important cautions to observe in undertaking the task of learning to monitor these symptoms. First, although the signals are described in behavioral terms, the scientific name is also listed in most instances. Lawyers need not, and in fact should not, try to master the art of accurately applying technical names to particular actions. This is more likely to be counter-productive because of errors of assignment. The important task is spotting notable behaviors and passing on the observation. The scientific names are provided only as an aid in understanding mental health professionals as they engage in their own jargon.

Second, in these days of wide-ranging access by prosecutors through discovery, defense attorneys should always be cautious in preserving any critical information in written memoranda. This is particularly true for observations such as those discussed here which may or may not be accurately noted and interpreted by the defense team. Probably the safest route is to make only such cursory notes as will enable the observer to remember particular behaviors.

Finally, although defense team members should learn to note potential signs of mental problems, they should never presume to label the clients' performance or behavior "normal." This is a very dangerous practice Any mistake in observation must favor the client. When the lawyer makes an error by spotting what appears to be a symptom of mental illness, the behavior will get examined by the expert with training to accurately interpret it. Then it can be disregarded if it is not important. However, when a lawyer or investigator labels an area of behavior as "normal," the expert may inappropriately accept that lay analysis and fail to apply a trained eye to a critical area of evaluation. For example, lawyers too often overestimate a client's intelligence simply because he is savvy about the criminal justice system. Also, race bias can lead lawyers to dismiss significant signs of mental impairment as "normal" for those from certain cultural arenas such as "the ghetto" or "the barrio." If these errors by lawyers are accepted as fact by the mental health professional, gross underestimation of impairment may result in serious detriment to the client.

The most dramatic signs of mental illness which might be encountered by the defense team are the overt psychotic symptoms which show some confusion regarding reality. (See Figure 1.) Hallucinations, a sign of both psychosis³ and brain damage,⁴ can involve sights, sounds, smells, physical sensations or tastes. Although these may not be a routine part of the legal team's inquiry, any time hallucinations are mentioned or hinted at, the subject should be pursued. Counsel should also look for any evidence that the client is responding to internal stimuli, such as inappropriate smiling, nodding and giggling. An expert will be interested in any reports or suspicions of hallucinations and will want to know what they are like, when they come, and how long they have been experienced.

Although hallucinations are dramatic when recognized, a client's reference to them may be so subtle as to avoid detection. One of my clients told me he was having trouble with his vision. At first I ignored this clue, believing he meant he needed new glasses when, in fact, he was alluding to recurring visual hallucinations. Another attorney said she missed references to auditory hallucinations because she lacked a good family history. Her client several times mentioned things his auntie was telling him. Only later did she realize his aunt had died when he was five years old.

Spontaneous remarks by the client should also guide the legal team to pursue the possibility of phobias,⁵ and delusions (consistent false beliefs),⁶ other general signs of mental impairment. Phobias are fairly obvious signs of mental problems as are some delusions (e.g., belief his food is being poisoned). One delusion, however, is sometimes easy for counsel to miss because it is perceived as a personal attack on the lawyer. Clients with the false belief that their attorneys are out to get them often prompt defensive behavior in their counsel rather than recognition that persistent beliefs along this line may be a signal of psychosis or paranoia.

In addition to following up on the spontaneous occurrence of the preceding psychotic-like symptoms, counsel should also be alert to physical observations of disorientation. During a visit, clients who seem confused about the physical surroundings or the persons in the room may be exhibiting what is termed disorientation.⁷ This observation should also be noted for later discussion with a mental health expert once a thorough, documented history is available.

Many of the general signs of psychiatric problems can be observed in speech. (See Figure 2.) In fact, oral language is a particularly sensitive manifestation of thought processes and brain dysfunction. Signals of mental impairment in speech can be broken down into several categories. One grouping includes speech patterns that seem nonsensical or nearly so. These include the rare problems of "word salad" or speech that is basically gibberish (even though at times it may sound like sentences). Also in this category is the use of neologisms or non-words. These client-created "words" are distinct from slang - words and phrases used colloquially by certain sub-groups of society. One must be careful not to dismiss what may be a signal of a thought disorder by assuming it to be unfamiliar slang of the client's cultural group.

Illogicality is another speech signal of the nonsensical variety. Although proper words are usually used in appropriate syntax, in illogicality, the reasoning is flawed. This term is applied to use of non-sequiturs and conclusions based on obviously false premises.

Another category of speech signals occurs when a client has a pattern of giving only half-answers to questions. Half answers can be monosyllabic or brief, unelaborated answers termed poverty of speech and poverty of thought. They can also include answers that are lengthy in terms of number of words but deficient in information. The client is saying nothing or droning on. This poverty of thought or poverty of content of speech may seem like "empty philosophizing."⁸ A final type of half-answer is that which is oblique or irrelevant to the actual question. This is referred to as tangential speech.

One of the most intriguing categories of speech signals involves those that might be termed "off- track." The speaker begins to answer one question but somehow moves off that topic. One way of getting off track is to be easily distracted by a nearby stimulus (e.g., the lawyer's jewelry) and then jump from the subject at hand to a discussion of the new stimulus. When this happens routinely it is referred to as distractible speech or distractibility,⁹ a general psychiatric sign as well as a specific marker of attention-deficit hyper-activity disorder,¹⁰ bipolar disorder,¹¹ and fetal alcohol syndrome.¹²

Another type of off-track speech, harder to discern, is when the speaker starts on one topic but slowly slips from one thought to another. The transition thought is related but only obliquely. For example, in answer to a question about where he went to school, the client may begin with the name of one of the schools. However, instead of focusing on completing the answer to that question, he may slip to why he didn't like school (homework) to what he would rather do than go to school (explore caves) to what one could find in caves (interesting little insects) and so forth. At some point he may remember he has gone afield. This type of disjointed, slow slippage of topic is referred to as derailment. The listener may not even notice the slippage until he looks down at the question of schools attended. A close relation to derailment is loss of goal, another off-track speech signal. Here the speaker starts on one topic and wanders away, never to return. Loss of goal does not occur only in a question-answer format but can arise in spontaneous speech as well.

Another off-track speech signal is the answer which is long-winded, circuitous, and filled with irrelevant details. This circumstantiality often causes an interviewer to feel impatient and may well require interruption in order to finish the task. Preservation, the repetitive use of words, phrases or ideas, can cause similar reactions of impatience. The speaker says the same thing over and over, varying only somewhat the wording he is using. These several off-track signals are obviously related and sometimes overlapping. The defense team should not seek to properly label each one but rather to note the unusual speech behavior in the client and pass it on to the expert. (E.g., "He can't seem to stay on one topic.")

The next type of speech signal might be termed "speedy." This is the loud, emphatic, rapid, over-eager speech that is hard to interrupt, which experts call pressure of speech or pressured speech.¹³ Related to pressured speech is the tendency of those with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder to talk too much and interrupt others.¹⁴

Delayed or interrupted responses is another type of speech signal. This includes (a) speech that is generally very slow; (b) responses that come only after unusual delay, termed psychomotor retardation;¹⁵ and (c) delays in response because of difficulty in finding the proper word to use, termed lack-of verbal fluency.¹⁶ Each of these can be a signal of brain damage.¹⁷ Delayed or interrupted speech also includes blocking. In blocking, the speaker stops in the middle of a thought and forgets what he was saying, a "mind went blank" experience.¹⁸

The final category of speech signals is sound related. This includes mispronunciations or inappropriate word substitutions (paraphasia), slurred speech (dysarthria),¹⁹ and speech which is delivered in a monotone despite the charged nature of the topic (aprosody).²⁰ A less serious sound related indicator is stilted speech, language which seems quaint or excessively formal. For example, "I thank you very much for the Coca-Cola" rather than the more natural "Thanks a lot." These problems have been identified as general signs of mental problems,²¹ as well as signals of potential brain damage.²²

Speech is often a difficult area of observation by legal staff because of the tendency to disregard impediments to understanding the content of the message. Thus, for instance, lawyers are likely to mentally correct the client's mispronunciation so that the conversation can continue and then forget the problem with pronunciation. Similarly, when a client's speech seems to move "off track" in any of the several ways suggested in Figure 2, the lawyer is likely to get annoyed and then either stop listening or interrupt and require that he answer the question posed. In either case, the lawyer loses the opportunity to note and analyze the aberrant behavior. Whenever there is an interview or conversation with the client, the defense team should be alert to these speech signals of mental impairment. Warning lights should go off when you feel that the conversation is hard to conduct, is "going nowhere," is confusing to you or the client, is annoying you, or boring you because he is "droning on."

In the end, careful observation of a client’s speech problems will require two members of the defense team. While one person carries on the conversation with the client, the other is free to watch the client more closely. These roles of observer and conversationalist can trade off during the interview. Later, after the client is gone, the two defense team members can discuss the observations and, thus, more carefully characterize the behavior for the expert.

Abnormal language markers can be particularly difficult to observe in clients for whom English is a second language. In those cases, counsel should contemplate seeking assistance from one who is fluent in the client's native language. Not only would this provide assistance in the linguistic nuances of the language but also give insight into important cultural factors in speech. For example, short, unelaborated answers which appear to be poverty of speech could be a cultural indication of respect for professionals.

In addition to speech, there are several other language problems which indicate potential mental impairment. (See Figure 2.) Written correspondence with the client is not only essential to sustaining a close working relationship but it also offers clues to mental functioning. Through analysis of writings one can spot not only many of the thought problems already discussed but also clues such as spelling problems, very tiny writing (micrographia)²³ and prolific, voluminous writing (hypergraphia) which can be signals of brain damage. Counsel should be careful, though, in assuming that letters from the client are actually written by him. It is not uncommon for inmates to get help from others with their reading and writing. Thus, some inquiry should be made of the client regarding who helps him with his work.

Finally, the lawyer should routinely assess the reading ability of the client. Reading level is important not only in planning how you can communicate best with the client in the future but also in understanding such legal issues as waivers, statements, and competency to stand trial.

One obvious time to test reading ability is when reviewing a legal document. Rather than simply handing it over to the client, tell him you'd like to go over it carefully with him. Don't ask him if he can read it or whether he'd like you to read it to him. This will only embarrass him and prompt a denial. Instead suggest you go through it paragraph by paragraph so you can answer any questions the client has and clear up any confusion you have. Then ask him to read the beginning. If he stumbles just a little, help him with a word and see if he can continue. If he continues to have difficulty, step in and volunteer to do the reading yourself. There is no need to prolong his agony because now you have the answer you need - the client has serious reading problems. Dyslexia, reading disability, can be a sign of brain damage.²⁴ Obviously, none of this exercise is necessary if you already are aware of a learning disability or mental retardation.

Even if the client can pronounce most of the words in the pleading, he may not comprehend their meaning. Thus, counsel should also check to see what the client understands the writing to mean. Any kind of test like this for pronunciation and comprehension will cause embarrassment for all but the best educated and most confident of clients. Counsel should be sensitive to this discomfort.

Memory is a complex set of mental functions which requires noticing the stimulus, making some sense of it, transferring the thoughts or images to a mental storage area and finally calling the thoughts or images back up into consciousness at the required time. Impairment or interference at any of the critical points will result in "memory problems." Difficulties with memory are recognized as important signs in psychiatry and neurology and can be clues to a variety of mental illnesses.²⁵ Memory problems have also been shown to specifically signal mental retardation,²⁶ brain damage, depression²⁷ and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.²⁸ Memory problems can also be related to long-term drug and alcohol abuse. Knowledge of either memory difficulties or substance abuse should prompt the defense team to investigate the possibility of the other.

Most crime-related discussions with the client, as well as questions about his background, will allow the defense team to note the memory facility of the client. In analyzing the behavior for use by the expert, it is helpful to sort out what particular types of things the client has trouble remembering. (See Figure 3.) For example, does he have clear memories of most areas of his life, but trouble with details of the crime, or recollections of his father, or some other particular subject? Memory loss can sometimes be a defensive function following psychic trauma, barring the painful experiences from conscious recollection. Zeroing in on whether the memory problem is global, covering all areas, or specific to some time period or subject will be of great help to the mental health expert.

The best marker of organic brain dysfunction is recent memory. Thus, the defense team should note the client's memory function in casual conversations regarding recent news events as well as in specific case-related discussions.

Another potential memory related area is the annoying problem of client "lies." Time is wasted on "wild goose chases" in investigation and strain is put on the relationship. In fact, the "lies" can be important general clues to mental impairment, signaling a variety of psychiatric conditions.²⁹ Lying is also common behavior for those with fetal alcohol syndrome.³⁰ In addition, what appears to counsel to be a lie could, in fact, be an attempt to honestly, but erroneously, fill in the gaps in a faulty memory.³¹ This is called confabulation.³² Thus, it is important to keep open the real possibility that "lying" is helpful as a signal rather than just another block in the road to proper case preparation. A good mental health expert will always want to know what is at the core of a client's difficulty in telling "the truth."

One of the components of the complex memory system is attention to and concentration on the important stimuli. (See Figure 3.) If one cannot stay focused long enough to take in the information, obviously memory will fail. This area of memory problems will show in many types of conversations with clients, not just those which require him to recall distant events. The defense team should be alert to client difficulties in staying focused. Attention and concentration problems can signal brain damage,³³ mental retardation,³⁴ post-traumatic stress disorder,³⁵ attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder,³⁶ fetal alcohol syndrome,³⁷ and other psychiatric problems.³⁸

A wide variety of medical complaints, including exaggerated concerns about health (hypochondria),³⁹ can signal mental impairment. (See Figure 4.) Wounds or "accidents" may actually reflect self-mutilation or suicide attempts.⁴⁰ Sleep problems (insomnia, nightmares, hypersomnia) can be a general psychiatric symptom⁴¹ as well as a specific marker of brain damage⁴² or post-traumatic stress disorder,⁴³ bipolar disorder and major depression.⁴⁴ Appetite changes can signal a variety of mental problems as well.⁴⁵ Vision and hearing problems can also be signs of brain damage, as can headaches, dizziness, nausea and excessive tiredness.⁴⁶

Defense team members should observe the client for signs of medical problems and routinely inquire into how he is feeling, sleeping and eating. These inquiries should be a consistent part of any interview, phone call or written correspondence with the client. In addition, counsel should teach the client to give notice whenever he is taken to a doctor, given lab tests or prescribed medications. Medical problems often have psychiatric components, side-effects and consequences. Thus, it is essential to any mental health evaluation to have knowledge of medical problems. Since many criminal defendants forget or fail to tell their lawyers about medical contacts, a request for records should be made to jail or prison authorities at regular intervals.

The emotions of the client can also be signals to underlying mental problems. (See Figure 6.) During any interview and in correspondence from the client, the defense team should look for signs of worry, mistrust, sorrow, irritability and impatience. Each of these can be clues to several types of mental illness⁴⁷ as well as brain damage.⁴⁸ Excessive unhappiness is common in those with fetal alcohol syndrome.⁴⁹

Counsel's attention should also be directed to the general tone of the client's emotions. Notice whether he tends to have heightened, extreme emotions (excitement), flat or near absence of emotions (flat affect) or suddenly changing emotions (emotional stability). These can be general psychiatric signs⁵⁰ as well as specific clues to brain dysfunction,⁵¹ post-traumatic stress disorder and schizophrenia.⁵²

Finally, one of the most disturbing emotional responses (at least to the lay public) is inappropriate laughing. Counsel needs to understand that clients who laugh while discussing what happened to the victim or how they were victimized themselves by child abuse, for example, are exhibiting signs of mental impairment. A mental health expert with a thorough medical and social history, reports of careful observation, and their own clinical observation and testing results can properly analyze this behavior.

The inability of the client to accurately appraise himself may offer other clues to mental illness⁵³ as well as brain damage,⁵⁴ and mental retardation.⁵⁵ (See Figure 6.) These problems can be seen as feelings of low self-esteem⁵⁶ or inflated, exaggerated ratings of personal ability. The client can also signal underlying problems with unrealistic goals which fail to take into account any disabilities. This will often show up during conversations about future plans.

A final problem in this area is denial of any mental impairment even after poor performance on formal testing. One of the most difficult conversations with clients comes after psychological testing, when they push to know the results. When they are informed they are brain damaged or mentally retarded, they often refuse to accept that, claiming errors in testing, or they feel devastated and vow to work harder to improve. It seems ironic that the lay public assumes criminal defendants malinger and manufacture mental problems when, in fact, they more typically work hard to hide them.

One of the ways counsel can assess personal insight problems is to weigh the client's self- assessment against his problem solving skills. (See Figure 6.) Difficulties with planning, organizing, quick thinking and predicting consequences not only may show exaggeration of abilities but also a variety of serious mental problems,⁵⁷ including, but not limited to brain damage,⁵⁸ mental retardation,⁵⁹ and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.⁶⁰ Clients who are easily frustrated⁶¹ or who fail to learn from their mistakes⁶² are also giving clues to possible mental illness, brain damage and mental retardation.

Observation by counsel of the client's physical activity level will also be helpful to the mental health expert. (See Figure 7.) Restless, fidgety, overly talkative behavior (agitation) as well as unusually quick reactions, can be a general sign of mental impairment⁶³ and a specific indicator of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.⁶⁴ The client who is hyper-alert to everything happening in the room, who constantly checks behind and around himself, may be exhibiting hypervigilance, a sign of post-traumatic stress disorder.⁶⁵

Slowness can also signal problems. Slow movements and slow speech (psychomotor retardation) as well as slow reactions can be both a general psychiatric sign,⁶⁶ as well as a marker of brain damage.⁶⁷

Balance,⁶⁸ gait, and coordination problems⁶⁹ should also be noted. One of the most obvious times to assess balance and coordination is when the client is entering and leaving an interview. Take the opportunity to watch how he walks as he approaches and exits, how he handles himself as he sits down and stands up. Fine motor coordination problems are another marker of brain impairment. Counsel should watch how the client handles fine motor tasks such as picking up small objects, turning pages, and opening food wrappers.

Another physical signal may come from the tension shown in the clients face or his posture.⁷⁰ The defense team should note whether the client is physically relaxed or stiff in appearance and, if tense, whether that is a stable physical characteristic or comes on during sensitive discussions.

A final arena of important observations by the legal team is the client's interactions with others. Routine inquiry should be made regarding any visitors or correspondents. This is important to monitor not only as a way of tracking potential witnesses but also as a way of assessing social isolation, a signal of mental problems including depression, prior child abuse and post-traumatic stress disorder⁷¹ and schizophrenia.⁷² Similarly, one should always ask about whether the client is going out to the exercise yard or taking part in other physical, educational, religious, or craft activities in the institution. Find out how it is that he structures his free time. Lack of interest in activities can signal bipolar disorder, major depression, post-traumatic stress disorder as well as schizophrenia.⁷³

Sometimes counsel has the chance to meet with the client in an open visiting room with other inmates and their visitors. This is an opportunity to notice whether the client fails to socially interact or is awkward or inappropriate with other inmates or staff. These signals can be clues to a variety of problems⁷⁴ including depression, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder⁷⁵ and fetal alcohol syndrome.⁷⁶

Women lawyers and investigators may run into distressing social interaction problems with their clients who make inappropriate sexual or intimate remarks or gestures. This behavior is dangerous to the professional relationship because of the resentment it may prompt as well as the misperception it may create for the custodial or prosecutorial staff. Thus, lines must be clearly drawn in order to curb the behavior. Yet while struggling for the appropriate way to curb the problem, one should not lose sight of this further signal of the client's mental impairment.⁷⁷ The disinhibition reflected in such actions should be distinguished from being a "jerk." Instead it shows his inability to comprehend social convention.

Defense counsel, mitigation specialists, and investigators have probably always noted the most glaring signs of mental problems, such as spontaneous reports of hallucinations and obvious delusions or false beliefs. However, counsel can also gather a host of more subtle but critical data by learning to notice aberrations in the client's speech and language functions, his memory and attention deficits, as well as the pattern and content of his medical complaints. Also, clues to mental problems can be noted in the client's emotional tone and his insight and problem solving skills, as well as his physical activity and social interactions. Each of these areas should be monitored by the defense team so that when the time comes for a mental health evaluation, these observations, as well as a thorough medical and social history, can be provided to the experts.
 
 

¹Blume "Mental Health Issues in Criminal Cases," The Advocate, Vol. 12, No. 5 (1990), at 43.
²Kaplan and Sadock,"Typical Signs and Symptoms of Psychiatric Illness," in Kaplan and Sadock (Eds.), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry V, Williams and Wilkins (1989), p. 468.
³Kaplan and Sadock, Study Guide and Self- Examination Review for Synopsis of Psychiatry, Third Edition, Williams and Wilkins (1989), p. 38.
⁴Kaplan and Sadock, Study Guide, supra, p. 38.
⁵Kaplan and Sadock, "Psychiatric Report," Kaplan and Sadock (Eds.), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry/V, Williams and Wilkins (1989), P. 484; Kaplan and Sadock, "Typical Signs and Symptoms of Psychiatric Illness," supra, p. 473. Leon, Bowden and Faber, "The Psychiatric Interview, History, and Mental Status Examination," in Kaplan and Sadock (Eds.) Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry/V, Williams and Wilkins (1989), p. 458.
⁶Kaplan and Sadock, "Psychiatric Report," supra, p. 464; Kaplan and Sadock, "Typical Signs and Symptoms of Psychiatric Illness," supra, p. 473.
⁷Parker, Traumatic Brain Injury and Neuropsychological Impairment, Springer-Veriag (1990), p. 204.
⁸Andressen, "Scale for the Assessment of Thought, Language, and Communication (TLC)," Schizophrenia Bulletin, 12:3 (1986), p. 474.
⁹Andressen, supra, p. 482.
¹⁰American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edition Revised, (1987), (DSM-III-R), p. 531.
¹¹DSM-III-R, supra, p. 531.
¹²Streissguth, et al., "Fetal Alcohol Syndrome in Adolescents and Adults," Journal of the American Medical Association, 265:15, (1991), p. 1961.
¹³Andressen, supra, p. 475.
¹⁴Logan, "Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Potential Mitigation in Capital Cases," (in press).
¹⁵Leon, Bowden and Faber, supra, p. 457.
¹⁶Levin, Benton, Fletcher and Satz, "Neuropsychological and Intellectual Assessment of Adults," in Kaplan and Sadock (Eds)., Textbook of ComprehensivePsychiatry/V, Williams and Wilkins (1989), p. 500.
¹⁷Parker, supra, pp. 184, 192.
¹⁸Andressen, supra, p. 480.
¹⁹Berg, Franzen, and Wedding, Screening for Brain Impairment: A Manual for Mental Health Practice, Springer (1987), p. 185.
²⁰Berg, Franzen and Wedding, supra, p. 181.
²¹Andressen, supra, p. 480.
²²Levin, et al., supra, p. 501.
²³Berg, Franzen and Wedding, supra, p. 187.
²⁴Parker, supra, p. 196.
²⁵Kaplan and Sadock, "Psychiatric Report," supra, p. 464.
²⁶"Amicus Brief in Penry v. Lynaugh." Mental and Physical Disabilities Law Reporter, (Sept./Oct. 1988), p. 475.
²⁷Kaplan and Sadock, Study Guide, supra, p. 38.
²⁸Logan, supra.
²⁹Kaplan and Sadock, "Typical Signs and Symptoms of Psychiatric Illness," supra, p. 474.
³⁰Streissguth, et al., supra, p. 1965.
³¹Kaplan and Sadock, "Typical Signs and Symptoms of Psychiatric Illness," supra, p. 474.
³²Parker, supra, p. 178.
³³Moffitt and Henry, "Neuropsychological Studies of Juvenile Delinquency and Juvenile Homicide," in Milner (Ed.), Neuropsychology of Aggression, Kluwer (1991), p. 75.
³⁴Amicus Brief, supra, p. 475.
³⁵DSM-III-R, supra, p. 202.
³⁶DSM-III-R, supra, p. 52.
³⁷Streissguth, et al., supra, p. 1961.
³⁸Kaplan and Sadock, "Typical Signs and Symptoms of Psychiatric Illness," supra, p. 468.
³⁹Kaplan and Sadock, "Typical Signs and Symptoms of Psychiatric Illness," supra, p. 473.
⁴⁰Roy, "Suicide," in Kaplan and Sadock (eds.), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry/V, Williams and Wilkins (1989), p. 1427.
⁴¹Kaplan and Sadock, "Typical Signs and Symptoms of Psychiatric Illness," supra, p. 471.
⁴²Parker, supra, p. 435.
⁴³DSM-III-R, supra, p. 541.
⁴⁴DSM-III-R, supra, p. 540.
⁴⁵Kaplan and Sadock, "Typical Signs and Symptoms of Psychiatric Illness," supra, p. 471. DSM-III-R, supra, p. 527.
⁴⁶Greenberg, "Adult Neuropsychological History Form," International Diagnostic Systems, Inc. (1990), p. 4.
⁴⁷Kaplan and Sadock, "Typical Signs and Symptoms of Psychiatric Illness," supra, p. 470. Levin, et al., supra, p. 500.
⁴⁸Kaplan and Sadock, Study Guide, supra, p. 38. Levin, et al., supra, p. 500.
⁴⁹Streissguth, et al., supra, p. 1965.
⁵⁰Levin, et al., spra, p. 500. Kaplan and Sadock, "Psychiatric Report," supra, p. 464. Kaplan and Sadock, "Typical Signs and Symptoms of Psychiatric Illness," supra, p. 468.
⁵¹Kaplan and Sadock, Study Guide, supra, p. 38.
⁵²DSM-III-R, supra, pp. 526, 534.
⁵³Levin, et al., supra, p. 500. Leon, Bowden and Faber, supra, p. 464. Kaplan and Sadock, "Typical Signs and Symptoms of Psychiatric Illness," supra, p. 465.
⁵⁴Kaplan and Sadock, Study Guide, supra, p. 38. Leon, Bowden and Faber, supra, p. 459.
⁵⁵Amicus Brief, supra, p. 475.
⁵⁶Szymanski and Crocker, "Mental Retardation," in Kaplan and Sadock (Eds.), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry/V, Williams and Wilkins (1989), p. 1749.
⁵⁷Kaplan and Sadock, "Psychiatric Report," supra p. 465.
⁵⁸Parker, supra, p. 184.
⁵⁹Amicus Brief, supra, p. 475.
⁶⁰DSM-III-R,supra, p. 536.
⁶¹Greenberg, supra, p. 2.
⁶²Kaplan and Sadock, "Psychiatric Report," supra, p. 465. Amicus, supra, p. 475.
⁶³Levin, et al., supra, p. 500. Leon, Bowden and Faber, supra, p. 457. Kaplan and Sadock, "Typical Signs and Symptoms of Psychiatric Illness," supra, p. 468.
⁶⁴ Logan, supra.
⁶⁵DSM-III-R, supra, p. 250.
⁶⁶Levin, et al., supra, p. 500. Leon, Bowden and Faber, supra, p. 457.
⁶⁷Greenberg, supra, p. 2.
⁶⁸Greenberg, supra, p. 3.
⁶⁹Leon, Bowden and Faber, supra, p. 456. Kaplan and Sadock, "Psychiatric Report," supra, p. 463.
⁷⁰Levin, et al., supra, p. 501.
⁷¹DSM-III-R, supra, p. 250.
⁷²DSM-III-R, supra, p. 525.
⁷³DSM-III-R, supra, p. 542.
⁷⁴Levin, et al., supra, p. 500.
⁷⁵Logan, supra.
⁷⁶Streissguth, et al., supra, p. 1961.
⁷⁷Levin, et al., supra, p. 500. Kaplan and Sadock, "Psychiatric Report," supra p. 464.

Reprinted with permission by Deana D. Logan and California Attorneys for Criminal Justice.

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